FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY

UNIT 2 - Micro-organisms In Food

Characteristics of micro organisms

A microorganism is an organism so small that it can only be viewed with the aid of a microscope. The use of the microscope and other laboratory techniques in the study of microorganisms has evolved as a branch of science called microbiology.
Microorganisms include:

·                               Fungi

·                               Bacteria

·                               Protozoa

·                               Viruses 

·                               Algae

BACTERIA

·                                         Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms with prokaryotic cells, which are single     cells that do not have organelles or a true nucleus and are less complex than eukaryotic cells. 

·                                         Bacteria come in a variety of shapes. The three main shapes of bacteria are coccus, spiral, and bacillus.

·                                         Cocci are bacteria that are spherical or ovoid in shape. 

·                                         Spiral bacteria are, as the name suggests, spiral-shaped. Spirillums are thick, tough spirals. 

·                                         Bacilli are rod-shaped bacteria. Bacilli can be solitary or arranged together.

·                                         Bacteria can also be other shapes such as filamentous (long and thin), square, star-shaped, and stalked. 

·                                         Bacterial spores are seed like and they are more resistant to most processing conditions than yeast or mould spores.

·                                         Bacteria with few exceptions, cannot grew in media as acid as those in which yeast and mold thrive. 

·                                         Under favorable conditions bacteria can double their number every 30 min.

·                                          Some bacteria cannot tolerate oxygen (anaerobes) and some require oxygen for growth (aerobes). 

·                                         Some can grow in an atmosphere devoid of oxygen but manage also in air (facultative anaerobes).

FUNGI

YEAST

·                               Yeast are unicellular plants(fungi) widely distributed in nature  and they grow well in slightly acidic medium in the presence of sugar and water. They are found in fruits, cereals and other food containing sugar. 

·                               They are also found in soil, air, on the skins and in the intestine of animals.

·                               They are larger than bacteria. 

·                               The individual cell length is about O micron .

·                               Most yeast is spherical and ellipsoidal. They have been used for centuries for leavening of bread and to bring about fermentation of food .

·                               They can be harmful to foods if they bring about undesired fermentation .

MOULD

·                               Moulds are multicellular filamentous fungi having a fuzzy or cottony appearance as they grow in foods. They are larger than yeast.

·                               They are strictly aerobes and require oxygen for growth and multiplication. 

·                               They grow slower than bacteria. 

·                               Moulds frequently grow under conditions of acidity .

·                               That is why they are found on jams and jellies .

·                               Moulds require less free moisture for growth than yeast and bacteria the absence of bright light and presence of stagnant air favour there rapid development.

VIRUS

·                               The viruses are extremely small ranging from 25-250 micron in size.

·                               Although they share some characteristics with living organisms, they are not truly alive. 

·                               They replicate inside a living cell using its host cells metabolism.

·                               There are no. of ways by which viruses may be transmitted most common of this is via direct or distance contact i.e. from host to host by touching or through short distance in air.

·                               Indirect transmission may occur. Also via contact with inanimate objects. By the bite of certain infected insects , by water and food .

·                               There are variety of ways in which viruses may enter food.

·                                                       Primary when the food product already contain virus at the time of slaughter or harvest or

·                                                       Secondary when it occurs during processing. storage or distribution of a food.

PARASITES

·                               An organism which lives in or on another organism (its host) and benefits by deriving nutrients at the other's expense.

·                               There are three types of parasites that feast on humans.

·                               Protozoa - one-celled organisms that live and multiply in the blood or tissue of humans. They infect the body via mosquitoes and flies and are found in soil and water.

·                               Helminths - parasitic flatworms, flukes, tapeworms, thorny-headed worms, roundworms, and pinworms. They live in the gastrointestinal tract, blood, lymphatic system, and other tissues.

·                               Ectoparasites - ticks, fleas, lice, and mites that live on the surface of a human host and attach or burrow into the skin.

·                               Ingestion of raw or semi-cooked food by humans can lead to infection by parasites.

·                                Food like pork, beef, lamb, shellfish, vegetables act as vehicles for infection.

·                               The organism contaminates food when raw human excreta are used as manure for crops. Infected water poor hygiene also spread parasite.

·                               Cooking kills most of these parasites.

Factors affecting their growth in food (intrinsic and extrinsic)

In most cases, micro-organism utilizes our food supply as a source of nutrient for their growth. This course can result in deterioration(decay)of food. The organism not only deteriorates the food but may also pose risks of disease to the human being on consumption of such contaminated food. However, the growth of microorganisms in food may be affected by several factors like physical, chemical and biological.
These factors can broadly divide into two categories i.e.

·                               Intrinsic parameters or intrinsic factors

·                               Extrinsic parameters or extrinsic factors

Intrinsic Factors

Intrinsic parameters are natural or inherent properties of food. These parameters greatly affect the number and types of microorganism that will colonize the food and food product. Intrinsic parameters affect only microorganisms, not to the food. Intrinsic parameters of food include:-

1.   pH value

2.   Moisture contains(water activity)

3.   Nutrients contain

4.   Anti-microbial constituents

5.   Biological structure

pH Value

·                               Every organism has a minimal, maximal and optimal pH for growth. 

·                               Some organism can grow better at low pH or acidic pH, some can grow in alkaline pH and while other grow at somewhat neutral pH. 

·                               pH influence both the growth rate and types of organism that will predominant the food.

·                                In general yeast and mould are more acid tolerant than bacteria.

·                               Moisture content or water activity(aw)

·                               Microorganisms grow in aqueous solutions.

·                                A term, "water activity (aw)" express the degree of availability of water in foods . 

·                               Foods with high water content deteriorate fast. Leafy vegetables, fruits, meat, milk deteriorate rapidly 

·                               Fruits & vegetables can give of moisture from respiration & transpiration even when packed in a moisture free package.

·                               This moisture is enough for microorganisms to grow.

Nutrients Contained

·                               The kinds and proportional of nutrient in food are all important in determining which micro-organism(microorganisms) is most likely to grow. 

·                               In general, simple compound is utilized first by the multiplying microorganisms. Carbohydrate(simple sugar) is most commonly utilized as an energy source. Protein-rich food like meat, egg, fish etc. are always spoiled by proteolytic organism because they can utilize protein as a source of energy if sugar is not available.

·                                In fact, protein-rich food promotes more growth of bacteria then yeast and mould . 

·                               Similarlly, in general mould can grow in the higher concentration of sugar, yeast in fairly high concentration but most bacteria grow best in the low concentration of sugar.

Anti-microbial Constituents

Some foods possess naturally occurring substances which influence the activity of invading microorganisms, for example:-
In Plant
Clove
Garlic
Mustard oil
In Animal
Cow’s milk
Eggs

Biological Structure

The natural covering of some foods provides excellent protection against the energy of micro-organism and spoilage of food by such microorganisms. Natural covering of food like,
Testa of seeds
Shell of egg/nuts
Peel of fruits/vegetable
Hide of animal may limit the entry of microorganisms

Extrinsic Factors

Extrinsic parameters are environmental factors, in which food and food products are kept. Extrinsic parameters affect both micro-organism as well as food. Unlike intrinsic parameters, extrinsic parameters can be maintained and regulated well. The extrinsic parameters include:-

1.   Temperature of storage

2.   Relative humidity of the environment

3.   Presence and concentration of gases

4.   Presence and activities of micro-organism

Temperature of storage

·                               Temperature of storage is a highly important parameter that affects the spoilage of highly perishable food. 

·                               Micro-Organisms are reported to grow between -340c to 1000c and each organism exhibit a minimum, optimum and maximum temperature for growth and these are known as cardinal temperature. 

·                               Yeast and mould can grow at the temperature range of 20 to 300c.

·                               Most bacteria can grow well at ordinary temperature(370c) ,however, some(thermophiles) grow at high temperature and other(psychrophilic) grow at low temperature.

·                               Microorganisms have optimum growth temperature .They do not grow above or below a specific range of temperature. Bacteria can grow and survive under more extreme conditions than those tolerated by any of the molds or yeasts. Bacteria's are classified as:-

·                               Psychrophiles - (0-20°C) 

·                               Mesophiles - (20-45°C) 

·                               Thermophiles - (45-60°C)

·                               Moulds can grow and can survive under more extreme conditions than can the yeasts.

Relative humidity

·                               Humidity is the concentration of water vapour in the atmosphere.

·                               Relative humidity is the ratio expressed as the percentage of moisture in the air to the moisture present in food.

·                               Relative humidity and water activity are inter-related i.e. when food with low water activity are stored in the environment of high humidity, water will transfer from gas phase (air) to the food and thus increased water activity of the food ,leading to spoilage by viable micro-organisms.

Presence and concentration of gases

·                               Presence of different gases and its varying concentration may significantly affect the colonizing micro organisms on the food i.e. surface spoilage is prevented by altering the gaseous composition.

·                               Oxygen is one of the most important gases which affects both food products as well as micro organisms. Oxygen gas when comes in contact with food, influence redox potential of food and finally the microbial growth.

·                               Ozone added to food as a preservative action on certain food. Ozone has GRAS(generally recognized as safe) status in the US, effective range is 1-5 ppm. 

·                               However, it has some demerits like strong oxidizing agents, causes the rancidity of high lipid-containing food.

Presence and activity of micro-organism

Inhibition or destruction of one population of micro-organism by the presence of other population of micro-organism present in the same habitat is the microbial interference.
Some Micro-organisms produced substances/metabolites (like secondary metabolites), that are either lethal or inhibitory to others.

MICROBIAL GROWTH CURVE

Microbial growth curve  - A curve on a graph that shows the changes in size of a bacterial population over time.
The curve is divided into phase as indicated in the fig:

·                               The initial lag phase (A to B), during which there is no growth or even a decline in numbers. The phase of positive acceleration the rate of growth is continuously increasing.

·                               The log or exponential phase of growth (C to D). during which the rate of multiplication is most rapid and is constant. The phase of negative acceleration (D to E). during which the rate of multiplication is decreasing .

·                               The maximal stationary phase ( E to F). where numbers remain constant.

·                               The accelerated death phase (F to G).

·                               The death phase or phase of decline (G to H). during which numbers decrease at a faster rates then new cells are formed and

·                               The survival phase (H to I) during which no cell division occur but remaining cells survive on endogenous nutrients.

Application of Growth Curve

Foods preservation is best by lengthening lag phase & the phase of positive.

acceleration. This can be done by: 

1.   By introducing as few spoilage organisms as possible i.e. by reducing the amount of contamination, the fewer organisms present, the longer the lag phase

2.   By avoiding the addition of activity growing organisms

3.   By one or more unfavorable environmental conditions .

4.   By actual damage to organism by processing methods such as heating or irradiation

UNIT 1 - Introduction to Food Safety

Food Safety

The safety of food produced, served & consumed is of utmost importance to everyone, more so to those who habitually eat outside their homes and are unaware of the intrinsic quality of food that is served to them, even though their taste buds approve it.

Food production centers or kitchens provide all conditions necessary for the growth of microorganisms, such as food, humidity & right temperature. All of which are conducive to the spread of infection, disease & infestation if not controlled & monitored through strict regimens with respect to hygiene & sanitation practices.

Definition

 Food safety is defined as keeping food safe to eat at every stage of (purchasing, receiving, storage, preparing, cooking, holding, cooling, reheating, and serving) handling as it passes through the flow of food from farm to table.

The relationship of safe food & health is well established & has been linked to the cultural practices of the country. The problem of getting safe food is more severe in public eating places where a large quantity of food is pre-prepared, held & finished on demand for service.

Food safety problems can be tackled at various levels in different ways with training in safety being organized. Training in safety can be organized into 3 distinct categories usually abbreviated as the 3E’s, namely safety education; safety engineering and enforcement of safety.

1. Safety Education

Should start during induction of the employee to the establishment.
Is effective by the formation of safety committees in the establishment.
Should include giving information about the legal and financial implication of accidents.
Should be done using audio-visual aids discussion, bulletin board, weekly safety theme.

2. Safety Engineering

This involves the building in of safety features in the structure of the establishment in the equipment, furniture and fittings, and their proper arrangements within the spaces equipment should be selected with care to ensure safety in design that can make it possible to maintain sanitation of parts that come in contact with food.

3. Enforcement of Safety

That means implementation or practice safety rules need to be enforced by rule, law or custom and practice. Also by

·                               Discipline at work

·                               Close supervision of all activities in vulnerable areas and at peak hours

·                               Closing all switches for fuel supply and water taps when not in use.

·                               Immediate attention to repair of leaks and regular maintenance and servicing of equipment to ensure optimum operation

Thus food safety is the protection of food product from unintentional contamination.

Safety programs

Safety programs and policies can only be effective if the staffs are trained to think and act safety at work for this, educating them in the following areas is necessary.
(i)  Teaching safe methods, with particular emphasis on areas of potential dangers, & how these can be guarded against.
(ii)  Demonstrating the use of safety equipment installed in the established and location and use of first aid material.
(iii)  Inculcating in people the ability to recognize the signs of the hazard around them, in colleagues and equipment e.g. – an unwell person or an unusual sound from an equipment.
(iv)  Teaching staff the legal implication of non-adherence to safety procedures.

Food Hazards

According to 2005 FDA food code, a hazard is a biological, chemical or physical property that may cause a food to be unsafe for human consumption

Biological hazard

·                               Biological hazard includes bacterial viral and parasitic microorganisms bacteria.

·                               The majority of biological hazards are bacteria that can be controlled through time, temperature, acidity and water activity. Some bacteria from spores that and highly assistant and may not be destroyed by cooking and drying.

·                               Viruses can exist in food without growing, but they can rapidly reproduce once they are on a living host, most typically a human being. Viruses can best be controlled by good personal hygiene, because that limits the transmission of viruses via human contact or common food contact.

·                               Parasites also need a host. They are mostly animals – host specific. What the can survive in humans. Adequate cooking or freezing destroys parasites. Special attention to foods such as pork, fish and bear,  they are known to carry parasites.

Chemical hazards

·                               Chemical hazards also cause foodborne illness. Chemical hazards may occur naturally or may be introduced during any stage of food production. 

·                               Natural occurring chemicals can be found in some species of fish or shellfish some plant foods and mushrooms e.g. some chemicals added to food also make them unsafe. 

·                               These include sulfites, sodium nitrates, mono sodium glutamate or lead, copper environmental additives (fertilizers pesticides) and cleaning agents (sanitizers, lubricants)

Physical hazards

Any physical material or foreign object not normally found in a food that can cause illness and injury it may result from contamination carelessness, mishandling and implementing poor procedures at many points. From harvest to consumers. e.g. Glass, wood, stone, metal, fragments, bone, plastic.

Contaminants

Contaminants are substances that have not been intentionally added to food. These substances may be present in food as a result of the various stages of its production, packaging, transport or holding.

They also might result from environmental contamination. Contamination generally has a negative impact on the quality of food and may imply a risk to human health.

Food hygiene

Food hygiene may be defined as the sanitary science which aims to produce food that is safe for the consumer and of good keeping quality. It covers a wide field and includes the rearing, feeding, marketing and slaughter of animals as well as the sanitation procedures designed to prevent bacteria of human origin reaching foodstuffs.

As per WHO, Food hygiene's are the conditions and measures necessary to ensure the safety of food from production to consumption. Food can become contaminated at any point during slaughtering or harvesting, processing, storage, distribution, transportation and preparation. Lack of adequate food hygiene can lead to foodborne diseases and death of the consumer.

IMPORTANT ABBREVIATIONS : FOOD SAFETY & QUALITY

ADI                        :   Acceptable Daily Intake
Agmark                   :  Agmark grading & marketing Acts & rules
BIS                          :  Bureau of Indian Standards
BOAA                     :  Beta-oxalyl Aminoalanine
BSE                         :  Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
CAC                       :  Codex Alimentarius Commission
CAP                        :  Controlled Atmosphere Packaging
CCFS                      :  Central Committee for Food Standards
CFTRI                     :  Central Food Technological Research Institute
CJD                        :  Creutzfeldt – Jakob disease
DNA                      :  Deoxyribonucleic Acid
EPA                       :  Environmental Protection Agency
FAO                       :  Food & Agricultural organization
FAD                       :  Food & Drug Administration
FPO                       :  Fruits Products Order
GEMS                   :  Global Environmental Monitoring System
GHP                      :  Good Handling Practices
GM                       :  Genetically Modified
GMP                     :  Good Manufacturing Practices
GRAS                    :  Generally Recognized as Safe
HACCP                :  Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point
HTST                   : High-Temperature short time
ISI                         :  Indian Standard Institution
ISO                        :  International Organization for Standardization
LTLT                     : Low-Temperature Long Time
MAP                     :  Modified Atmosphere Packaging
MBM                    :  Meat & Bone Meal
MSG                     :  Mono Sodium Glutamate
NHP                      :  National Health Policy
NIN                       :  National Institute of Nutrition
PFA                       :  Prevention of Food Adulteration
QA                        :  Quality Assurance
QC                        :  Quality Control
SWAM                    :  Standard Weight & Measures Acts
TQM                      :   Time Quality Management
UHT                      :  Ultra High Temperature
UV                        :  Ultra Violet Ray
WHO                    :  World Health Organization

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FOOD SPOILAGE AND FOOD PRESERVATION

Foods undergo deterioration or spoilage from the time they are harvested, slaughtered or manufactured. Foods undergo physiological, chemical and biological changes and make them unfit for human consumption.

Number of causes are responsible for food deterioration. These include:

1.           Micro-organisms

2.           Activities of enzymes present in food

3.           Insects

4.           parasites

5.           rodents

6.           temperature

7.           moisture

8.           Oxygen, light and time.

These factors are not isolated in nature. At any one time, many forms of spoilage may take place depending upon the food and environmental conditions

TYPES AND CAUSES OF SPOILAGE

1. Micro-organism:

 Bacteria, yeasts & molds spoil food after harvesting, during handling, processing & storage. The micro­ organisms are found everywhere & are always present to invade the flesh of animals & plants, when there is a cut in their skin or if the skin is weakened by disease or death.

2. Food enzymes:

Enzymes present in plant & animal foods continue to be present and are even intensified after harvest & slaughter.
Enzymes are responsible for facilitating many changes during storage such as changes in colour, texture and flavor e.g. ripening of tomatoes, tenderizing of meat on ageing are desirable, but if proceeded too far can result in food spoilage if not halted at the appropriate time.
The enzymes need to be inactivated by suitable method at appropriate time to prevent food spoilage.

3. Insects, parasites & rodents:

Insects are destructive to cereal grains, fruits & vegetables. The loss of food due to insects destruction varies from 5-50% depending upon the care taken in the field & storage. Insects are generally controlled by fumigation with ethylene oxide & propylene oxide.
Parasitic food spoilage occurs in some foods. Pigs eat uncooked food waste, the parasitic nematode penetrates the pig's intestine finds its way into pork. The live worms can infect man if the pork is not thoroughly cooked.
Infected water and poor hygiene also spread the parasites. Cooking kills most of these parasites.
Rodents contribute substantially to food spoilage. Rats, cockroaches, rodents urine and drippings harbour several kinds of disease producing bacteria and rats spreads such human disease as typhus fever, plague, typhoid fever etc.

5. Temperature

Heat and cold contribute to food spoilage if not controlled. The rate of chemical reaction doubles itself for every 10° C rise in temperature. Excessive heat brings about protein denaturation, destroy vitamins, break emulsions and dries out food by removing moisture.
Freezing and thawing of fruits and vegetables destroy their structure.

6. Moisture

Foods with high % water spoil fast. Perishable foods have a high water content. Control of moisture in foods is thus very important from the point of view of their preservation.

7. Oxygen,  Light and Time

Air and oxygen bring about a number of changes in food components such as destruction of food colour, flavor, vitamin A & C and other food constituents .
Oxygen is to be excluded from in the course of processing while deareat ion, vacuum packing or flushing containers with nitrogen or carbon dioxide.
Light destroys vitamin B2, A and C.
It also deteriorates many food colours. Foods may be protected from light by impervious packing or keeping them in containers that screen out specific wavelengths. Foods spoilage is time dependent. The larger the time. the greater the destructive influences .

SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION

1. Contamination from the Source

Meat, raw veggies, eggs and milk can be contaminated with e-coli, salmonella or other food borne pathogens before they even reach the processing plant. These products are exposed while in or on the ground through contact with animal feces, bacterial infection, and contaminated ground water. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention, eggs are often contaminated before they are deposited by the hen, through salmonella present in the hen’s ovaries.

2. Contact in Pre-Processing

Slaughterhouses are notorious for co-mingling meats before and after slaughter, thus causing contamination. Contact with pathogens can also occur during transit, when the food is sitting idle in the back of a hot truck. Improperly cooled or heated food only heightens the problem. Food that only contains a few microbes can become a teaming piece of bacterial heaven after sitting in transit for a few hours.

3. Problems During Processing

Contamination during processing involves environmental contaminants like metal shavings, pesticides and chemicals used to operate and maintain the machinery. Contamination can occur from improper maintenance, improper use of the machines and breaches in the ventilation system that leads to the processing area.
Most contaminants can be defeated after processing with high heat or freezing. Other types of contamination's requires immediate disposal of the food.

Spoilage of different food products

Spoilage of Cereals and Cereal Products

The exterior of harvested grains retain some of the natural flora plus contamination from soil, insects & other sources e.g.
Washing & milling reduces microorganisms.
Blending & conditioning increases contamination.
Cereal products
Wheat flour - bacteria
Corn meal - molds
Bread - a freshly baked loaf is practically free of viable microorganisms, but mold spores contaminate during cooking & before wrapping slicing by knives also contaminates.

MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

Milk contains few bacteria when it leaves the udder of healthy cow.
Contamination starts from the animal especially the exterior of the adjacent areas. Bacteria found in manure, soil & water may enter from this source .
Microorganisms from milking machine, when milking by hand.
Contamination from dairy utensils & milk contact surfaces like milk oil or milking machines. bulk milk cooler .
MILK PRODUCTS
BUTTER: - microorganisms from churner, from water used in its washing, old cream & packaging material.
Dry milk, evaporated milk & sweetened condensed milk may be contaminated from special equipments used in their preparation.
Cheese - it is contaminated from air, brine, tanks, shelves & packaging material.
Ice cream - organisms may be added to ice cream in the ingredients.

MEAT

The healthy inner flesh meat contains few or no microorganisms although they have been found in lymph nodes, bone marrow & even flesh. Normal slaughtering practices would remove the lymph nodes from edible parts. Contamination comes from external sources during bleeding, handling and processing. During bleeding, skinning and cutting the main sources of microbes is the exterior of the animals (hide, hoofs and hair) and the intestinal tract.
Knives, clothes, air, hands and clothing of the workers can serve as intermediate source of containments.
During handling contamination comes from cart, boxes, and contaminated meat, from air and from personals.
Grinders ,sausages stutters, slicing, casing and ingredients are the sources.

EGGS

Most freshly laid eggs are sterile but the shells of some become contaminated by faecal material from the hen, by the lining of the nest, by wash water, by handling the materials in which eggs are packed.

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Spoilage occur during storage, transportation while waiting to be processed, washing, mechanical damage, processes such as trimming, peeling, cutting, coring add to contamination .

CANNED  PRODUCT

Spoilage occurs by chemical, biological or both.
CHEMICAL: - by hydrogen swell resulting from the pressure of hydrogen gas released by action of acid of goods on the iron of the can, time, temperature of storage, tinning imperfection, poor exhaust etc.
BIOLOGICAL: - by microorganisms, survival of organisms after administration of the heat treatment, leakage of the container after the process permitting the entrance of microorganisms.

Basic principles of food preservation

In accomplishing the preservation of foods by the various methods the following principles are involved: -
Prevention or delay of microbial decomposition.

·                     By keeping out microorganisms.

·                     By removal of microorganisms.

·                     By hindering growth activities of microorganisms.

·                     By killing of microorganisms i.e. by heat or radiation.

Prevention or delay of self decomposition of the food:-

·                     By destruction or inactivation of food enzymes e.g. by blanching

·                     By prevention or delay of chemical reaction

Prevention of damage because of insects animals and mechanical causes

Methods of food preservation

1.            Asepsis or keeping out microorganisms.

2.            Removal of microorganisms.

3.            Maintenance of anaerobic conditions.

4.            Use of high temperature.

5.            Use of low temperature.

6.            Drying

7.            Use of chemical preservatives

8.             Irradiation

9.            Mechanical destruction of microorganisms by grinding or high pressure.

10.          Combination of two or more of above methods.

1. ASEPSIS:  - keeping out the microorganisms by adopting good hygienic  practices  and sanitized environment.
2. REMOVAL OF MICRO-OGANISMS: - can be done by filtration, centrifugation (sedimentation or clarification) washing or trimming.
3. MAINTENANCE  OF ANAEROBIC CONDITION: - a complete fill, evacuation of unfilled space or replacement of air by carbon dioxide and by inert gas nitrogen.

PRESERVATION BY USE OF HIGH TEMPERATURE

·                     High temperatures denature proteins and inactivate enzymes required for metabolisms of the microorganisms.

·                     The treatment varies with microorganisms. Depending on the heat treatment employed some of the vegetative cells, most of the cells are part of bacterial spores, or all of them may be killed.

·                     Yeast and yeast spores: are killed at 60°C for 10 to 15 minutes

·                     Mold & mold spores: Are killed at 60°C in 5 to 10 minutes

·                     Bacteria: salmonella - 60°C for 4 minute

·                     E.coli - 57.3°C for 20 to 30 minutes, streptococcus thermophiles - 70°C to 75°C for 15 minutes, clostridium botulinium -   100°C for 100 to 330 minutes.

PRESERVATION BY USE OF LOW TEMPERATURE

·                     Low temperatures are used to retard chemical reactions and action of food enzymes and to slow down or stop the growth and activity of microorganisms in foods.

·                     The lower the temperature the slower the chemical reaction, enzyme action and microbial growth.

·                     A low enough temperature will prevent the growth of any microorganisms.

·                     Commercial refrigeration temperatures i.e. lower than 0°C to 7°C effectively retard growth of many food borne pathogens.

·                     Cold storage: - most commercial storage freezers are at or below - 18°C.

·                     Common or cellar storage lower than 15°C (for root crops,potatoes. cabbage, apples)

·                     CHILLING STORAGE: - it involves cooling by ice or by mechanical refrigeration. Most perishable foods including eggs,dairy products, meat, sea food,vegetables & fruits are kept at chilling storage. Temperature varies from – 0.5°C to 10°C.

·                     FROZEN STORAGE:  -

·                     Sharp freezing:  -15°C to -29°C & may take 3 - 72 hours.

·                     Quick freezing:

·                     Direct immersion of the food or the package food in a refrigerant as in the freezing of fish in brine.

·                     Indirect contact with the refrigerant at -17.8°C to -45.6°C.

·                     Air blast freezing where air at - 17 .8°C to -34.4°C is blown across the materials being frozen.

PRESERVATION BY DRYING

·                     Drying usually is accomplished by the removal of water but any method that reduces the amount of available moisture in a food is a form of drying.

·                     Method of drying includes

·                     Solar drying ( raisins, figs, pears, fish, rice)

·                     Mechanical dryers - it involves passage of heated air with controlled relative humidity over the food to be dried or the passage of the food through such air. E.g. evaporator or kiln, drum dry, spray drying, freeze dryers & vacuum dryers.

PRESERVATION BY FOOD ADDITIVES
A food additive is a substance or mixture of substances, other than the basic food stuff, which is present in food as a result of any aspect of production, processing, storage or packaging.
Those food additives which are specifically added to prevent the deterioration or decomposition of a food are referred as chemical preservatives, their enzymes activity or their genetic mechanisms. E.g. propeonic acid,

PRESERVATION BY RADIATION
Use of UV radiation
Ionizing radiation which include x rays, gamma rays, beta rays and cathode rays and microwave heating which have electromagnetic waves between infrared  and radio waves.

UNIT 10 - HYGIENE AND SANITATION IN FOOD SECTOR

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FOOD HYGIENE

The five key principles of food hygiene, according to WHO, are:


1. Prevent contaminating food with pathogens s4preading from people, pets, and pests.


2. Separate raw and cooked foods to prevent contaminating the cooked foods.


3. Cook foods for the appropriate length of time and at the appropriate temperature to kill pathogens.

4. Store food at the proper temperature.

5. Use safe water and safe raw materials.

GOOD HYGIENE PRACTICES FOR COMMODITIES

Producers should as far as practicable implement measures to:

• control contamination from air, soil, water, feedstuffs, fertilizers

(including natural fertilizers), pesticides, veterinary drugs or any other agent used in primary production;


• control plant and animal health so that it does not pose a threat to human health through food consumption, or adversely affect the suitability of the product; and


• protect food sources from faecal and other contamination. In particular, care should be taken to manage wastes, and store harmful substances appropriately.

GOOD HYGIENE PRACTICES FOR EQUIPMENTS

Equipments should be located so that it:

• permits adequate maintenance and cleaning;

• functions in accordance with its intended use; and

• facilitates good hygiene practices, including monitoring.

GOOD HYGIENE PRACTICES FOR WORK AREA AND PERSONNEL

·                     Maintaining a clean work environment is critical in preventing foodborne illness.

·                     Bacteria can grow on unsanitary surfaces and then contaminate food. Just because a work surface looks clean does not mean that it is sanitary.

·                     Always ensure that you clean and sanitize a work area before starting to prepare food and after food preparation.

·                     Wash hands before performing the next job function after touching other food, and after smoking, chewing tobacco, eating and drinking, taking out the garbage, changing diapers, touching body parts such as the mouth or going to the washroom.

·                     Wash hands before and after handling raw food, especially meat and poultry.

·                     Report immediately any symptoms of illness or infection to your supervisor. It may not be appropriate for you to handle food while you are sick.

·                     Cover any cuts with a bandage and wear clean gloves. However, do not wear rubber or latex gloves near open flames or other heat sources.

·                     Gloves may melt or catch fire. Change gloves if you touch anything that would normally require you to wash your hands.

·                     Wear hair nets to help prevent loose hair from falling on food. The average person loses about 50 hairs per day.

·                     Use tools or utensils to serve food whenever possible. Touch food with your hands as little as possible.

·                     Use a clean spoon each time you taste or sample food.

·                     Touch only the handles of flatware/utensils when setting the table.

·                     Do NOT wear jewellery in food preparation areas, especially rings; they may collect dirt or bacteria and make it harder to clean your hands. Similarly, keep nails trimmed short and do not wear nail polish.

·                     Do NOT use aprons to dry your hands.

·                     Do NOT smoke in food preparation areas.

CLEANING AND DISINFECTION

·                     Cleaning and disinfection programmes should ensure that all parts of the establishment are appropriately clean, and should include the cleaning of cleaning equipment.

·                     Cleaning and disinfection programmes should be continually and effectively monitored for their suitability and effectiveness and where necessary, documented.

·                     Where written cleaning programmes are used, they should specify:

1.            areas, items of equipment and utensils to be cleaned;

2.            responsibility for particular tasks;

3.            method and frequency of cleaning; and

4.            monitoring arrangements.

Where appropriate, programmes should be drawn up in consultation with relevant specialist expert advisors.

CLEANING PROCEDURES AND METHODS

Cleaning can be carried out by the separate or the combined use of physical methods, such as heat, scrubbing, turbulent flow, vacuum cleaning or other methods that avoid the use of water, and chemical methods using detergents, alkalis or acids.

Cleaning procedures will involve, where appropriate:
• removing gross debris from surfaces;

• applying a detergent solution to loosen soil and bacterial film and hold them in solution or suspension;

• rinsing with water to remove loosened soil and residues of detergent;

• dry cleaning or other appropriate methods for removing and collecting residues and debris; and

• where necessary, disinfection with subsequent rinsing unless the manufacturers’ instructions indicate on scientific basis that rinsing is not required.

SAFETY ASPECTS OF WATER

❑In contact with food
Only potable water, should be used in food handling and processing, with the following exceptions:
• for steam production, fire control and other similar purposes not connected with food; and
• in certain food processes, e.g. chilling, and in food handling areas, provided this does not constitute a hazard to the safety and suitability of food (e.g. the use of clean sea water).

❑Water recirculated for reuse should be treated and maintained in such a condition that no risk to the safety and suitability of food results from its use.
❑The treatment process should be effectively monitored.

❑Recirculated water which has received no further treatment and water recovered from processing of food by evaporation or drying may be used, provided its use does not constitute a risk to the safety and suitability of food.

❑Water recirculated for reuse should be treated and maintained in such a condition that no risk to the safety and suitability of food results from its use.
❑The treatment process should be effectively monitored.

❑Recirculated water which has received no further treatment and water recovered from processing of food by evaporation or drying may be used, provided its use does not constitute a risk to the safety and suitability of food.

WASTE WATER

Hotels produce a lot of waste water and usually the waste water is disposed off in water bodies such as river, sea, lake or as landfill. But acc. to the norms of the PCB (Pollution Control Board) , sewage needs to be properly treated before it is disposed.

➢SEWAGE TREATMENT:
It is the process of removing the contaminants from sewage to convert it to a composition of clear liquid and solid, which are fit for discharge to the environment or for reuse.

•In the most sophisticated treatment, clear potable water can be obtained while leaving only 5 per cent to 10 per cent of solids after treatment.

•This solid part, called sludge, is further processed to produce what is called biosolid, which have many uses.

•While hoteliers can discharge their sewage to the public sewerage, along with town sewage, for treatment in the city sewage treatment plant and final disposal.

•Many hotels have opted for in-house, Sewage Treatment Plants, where they get fresh water for reuse and may use the sludge as manure for garden activities.

UNIT - 11 RECENT CONCERNS

Emerging pathogens

Despite advances in hygiene, consumer knowledge, food treatment and processing, food borne diseases mediated by pathogenic microorganisms or microbial toxins still represent a significant treat to public health worldwide.
Emerging Pathogens are those causing illnesses that have only recently appeared or been recognised in a population or that are well recognised but are rapidly increasing in incidence or geographic range.

Emerging Pathogens are those that have:

·                     Appeared recently

·                     Extended to new vehicles of transmission 

·                     Started to increase rapidly in incidence or geographic range 

·                     Been widespread for many years but only recently identified through new or increased knowledge or methods of identification and analysis of the disease agent 

Genetically Modified Foods

Genetically modified foods or GM foods, also known as genetically engineered foods or bio-engineered foods, are foods produced from organisms that have had changes introduced into their DNA using the methods of genetic engineering.
Common Genetically Modified Foods
Milk

Canola Oil
Aspartame
Soy
Corn
Potato
Papaya
Rice
Tomato
Cotton

Genetically Modified Foods – Merits & Demerits

Before we think of having GM foods it is very important to know about is advantages and disadvantages especially with respect to its safety.
MERITS

·                     GM foods are useful in controlling the occurrence of certain diseases. 

·                     By modifying the DNA system of these foods, the properties causing allergies are eliminated successfully. 

·                     These foods grow faster than the foods that are grown traditionally.

·                     Moreover, these foods are a boon in places which experience frequent droughts, or where the soil is incompetent for agriculture. 

·                     At times, genetically engineered food crops can be grown at places with unfavourable climatic conditions too. 

·                     Genetically engineered foods are reported to be high in nutrients and contain more minerals and vitamins than those found in traditionally grown foods. 

·                     Other than this, these foods are known to taste better. 

·                     Another reason for people opting for genetically engineered foods is that they have an increased shelf life and hence there is less fear of foods getting spoiled quickly.

DEMERITS

·                     The biggest threat caused by GM foods is that they can have harmful effects on the human body. 

·                     It is believed that consumption of these genetically engineered foods can cause the development of diseases which are immune to antibiotics.

·                     Manufacturers do not mention on the label that foods are developed by genetic manipulation because they think that this would affect their business, which is not a good practice. 

·                     Experts are also of the opinion that with the increase of such foods, developing countries would start depending more on industrial countries because it is likely that the food production would be controlled by them in the time to come.

Food Labelling

·                     Food Labelling serves as a primary link of communication between the manufacturer or packer of food on the one hand and distributor, seller, and user or consumer on the other hand. 

·                     By way of labelling the manufacturer introduces his product to his distributor or seller and to the target consumer or user of his product by providing all the information regarding his product on the label.

·                     As per Food Laws, every packaged food article has to be labelled and it has to be labelled in accordance with the law applicable in the country of the user. 

·                     Every packaged food article for the domestic use has to be labelled in accordance to the related Indian Food Law i.e. Food Safety and Standards (Packaging and Labelling) Regulations, 2011, notified by Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI).

In order to safeguard the interest of the consumer, The Food Safety and Standards (Packaging and Labelling) Regulations, 2011, provides that every packaged food article has to be labelled and it shall provide the following information –

·                     The name of Food

·                     List of Ingredients,

·                     Nutritional Information,

·                     Declaration regarding Veg or non-veg,

·                     Declaration regarding Food Additives,

·                     Name and complete address of the manufacturer or packer

·                     Net Quantity,

·                     Code No,/Lot No./Batch No.,

·                     Date of manufacture or packing,

·                     Best Before and Use By Date,

·                     Country of Origin for imported food and

·                     Instructions for use

If the food product is not labelled in accordance to the regulations or it does not provide the required complete information or the food product is promoted for sale with false, misleading or deceptive claims then it is considered as misbranded food and attracts the penalties as given below-

OFFENCES & PENALTIES

Misbranded Food Up to 3lakh rupee
Misleading advertisement Up to 10lakh rupees
The consumer can notice the labelling defect easily through visual inspection and that may create suspicion about the quality of the product also in the mind of the consumer.

BSE (BOVINE SERUM ENCEPHTHALOPATHY)

·                     A brain disorder in adult cattle that may be spread to humans through diseased meat.

·                     Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), commonly known as mad cow disease, is a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy and fatal neurodegenerative disease in cattle that may be passed to humans who have eaten infected flesh. 

·                     BSE causes a spongiform degeneration of the brain and spinal cord. BSE has a long incubation period, of 2.5 to 5 years, usually affecting adult cattle at a peak age onset of four to five years. 

·                     As of January 2004, more than 180,000 cases of BSE were confirmed in Great Britain in more than 35,000 herds of cattle. The epidemic peaked in January 1993 at almost 1,000 new cases per week.

·                     BSE is caused by a misfolded protein—a prion.

·                     Humans may acquire the disorder by eating diseased meat products. When it comes from cattle, the disorder is called Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD). CJD ultimately leads to dementia and death. The condition is rare.

·                     The disease is marked by rapid mental deterioration, usually within a few months. Most people eventually lapse into a coma.

·                     Treatment focuses on keeping the person as comfortable as possible.

NEWER TRENDS IN FOOD PACKAGING AND TECHNOLOGY

The food packaging industry is vibrant and highly competitive, with food manufacturers always on the look-out for packaging that can provide consumers with increased convenience as well as longer shelf life at a lower cost than their existing packaging.
1. Material substitution - Over the past few decades there have been significant changes in the relative proportions of the packaging materials glass, metal, paper and plastics used to pack food. Most noticeable has been the switch from glass (and to a lesser extent metal) to plastics with, for example, the majority of beverages nowadays packed in polyethylene terephthalate (PET).

2. Light weighting – Light weighting has been going on for decades, driven primarily by economics but in recent years it has always been trumpeted as being driven by environmental concerns.

3. Smart labels - The Universal Product Code is a bar code symbology used for scanning packages at point of sale. It has been widely used on food and other packs since its launch in 1974 on a 10-pack of chewing gum.

4. Sustainability - Although sustainable packaging is widely discussed at conferences and in the packaging media, there is no consensus as to what it is. Many in the packaging industry are confused; consumers are also very confused and the potential exists for unscrupulous companies to market packages as ‘sustainable’ when they are not and thus mislead consumers.

5. Biobased but not biodegradable plastics - Sustainable means to maintain or keep going continuously and the word has been used in connection with forest management for over a century. To be sustainable, consumption of resources must match their rate of renewal and therefore the use of non-renewable resources, such as petroleumbased plastics (and metals), is unsustainable.

UNIT 8 - FOOD LAWS AND REGULATIONS

Introduction
Food laws came into existence for a number of reasons: –

·                     To maintain the quality of food produced in the country.

·                     To prevent exploitation of the consumer by sellers. This could only be done by making consumers aware of what to expect in terms of quality when they buy food.

·                     To safeguard the health of consumers.

·                     To establish criteria for quality of food products.

The Essential Commodities Act is an act of Parliament of India which was established to ensure the delivery of certain commodities or products, the supply of which if obstructed owing to hoarding or black marketing would affect the normal life of the people. This includes foodstuff, drugs, fuel (petroleum products) etc.

PREVENTION OF FOOD ADULTERATION ACT (PFA) ACT, 1954

PFA is directly concerned with the protection of the health of consumers, and the quality of food products marketed. PFA states that article of food shall be deemed to be adulterated: –

(a) If the article sold by a vendor is not of nature, substance or quality demanded by the purchaser & is to his prejudice or is not of nature, substance or quality which it should be.

(b)  If the article contains any other substance which affects, or if the article is so processed as to affect injuriously nature, substance or quality thereof.

(c)  If any inferior or cheaper substance has been substituted wholly or in part for the article so as to affect injuriously nature, substance or quality thereof.

(d)  If any constituent of the article has wholly or in part been abstracted so as to affect injuriously nature, substance or quality thereof.

(e)  If the article has been prepared, baked or kept under insanitary conditions whereby it has become contaminated or injurious to health.

(f)  If the article consists wholly or in part of any filthy, putrid, disgusting, rotten, decomposed or diseased animal or vegetable substance or is insect-infested or otherwise unfit for human consumption.

(g)  If the article is obtained from a diseased animal.

(h)  If the article contains any poisonous or other ingredients which render it injurious to health.

(i)  If the container of the article is composed, whether wholly or in part, of any poisonous or deleterious substance which renders the contents injurious to health.

(j)  If any colouring matter other than that prescribed in respect thereof and in amounts, not within the prescribed limits of variability is present in the article.

(k)  If the article contains any prohibited preservative or permitted preservative in excess of the prescribed limits.

(l)  If the quality or purity of the article fall below the prescribed standards or its constituents are present in quantities which are in excess of the prescribed limits of variability.

The PFA act, 1954 thus lays down the guidelines for setting up standards for various food items like cereals & cereal products, pulses, ghee etc. All processed items which are mass produced for public use expected to conform to these standards. The penalty for adulteration that is injurious to health involves a minimum punishment of 1 year in jail and fine of 2000/- extendable to 6 years and a higher fine as fixed by the court. Adulteration which is not injurious to health is punishable by 6 months in jail and a fine of 1000/- extendable to 3 years and a minimum fine of as decided by the court.

FOOD STANDARDS IN INDIA

Some food standards have been formulated and some rules laid down to be followed by the act, the most of which are the: –

1)  PFA standards (prevention of food adulteration)

These lay down the minimum standards for all types of foods and are revised periodically to meet the requirements of the manufacturer and the consumer from time to
time. The PFA standard was formulated in 1955 were subsequently revised in 1968, 1973 & 1981. Any food not conforming to these standards is said to be adulterated.

2)  FPO standards (food process order)

The FPO passed in 1946, under the defence of Indian rules, was revised under the essential commodities act, 1955. The FPO standards are mainly concerned with the standards required for maintaining the quality of fruits & vegetables & products manufactured from them. The FPO also specifies the conditions of hygiene & sanitation required to be maintained by the manufacturer of F & V products. The specification for the labelling & packaging of these products has been laid down. Under the FPO it is necessary for manufacturers to get a licence is only issued if the conditions of manufacture & the quality of the products conform to the standards laid down by the order.

3)  AGMARK standards

These standards are formulated on the physical & chemical characteristics of food, both the natural as well as those acquired during processing. Products graded under AGMARK include vegetable oils, ghee, cream, butter, rice, gur, eggs, groundnuts, potatoes, fruits, pulses & spices. These standards ensure accurate weights & correct selling practices.

4)  INDIAN standards

These standards cover vegetable and food products, spices, meat products, condiments & processed food like biscuits, sweets, flour, texturised soya products, tea, coffee & other beverages and so on. The standards are set up by the ISI, who certification mark is ISI, seen on all products indicating conformity to lay down standards the ISI (now BIS) is the national organization for standardization and lays down criteria for standardization of products, materials, practices & processes. It is also involved with the standardization of items like building materials, safety standards for equipment etc. which the caterer must be aware of when a decision regarding premises an equipment are required to be taken.

VEGETABLE OIL CONTROL ORDER (VOCO): – This specifies the standards desired for edible oil and hydrogenated fat to be marketed.

THE MEAT PRODUCT ORDER (MPO): – This relates to the quality of meat products manufactured for sale. Quality refers to the health of the animal being slaughtered hygienic condition of slaughterhouses and microbial quality of meat.

MILK AND MILK PRODUCT ORDER (MMPO): – This was passed by the government in 1992 the MMPO provides for setting up of an advisory board to advise the government on the production, sale, purchase and distribution of milk.

ECOMARK: – This system launched by the BIS was introduced to preserve the environment from pollutants. The mark ensures the consumer that products do not produce hazardous waste materials, are biodegradable and can be recycled. Food item covered includes edible oil, tea, coffee, beverages, infant food, processed foods along with food additives, preservatives and packaging materials as well.

CODEX ALIMENTARIUS

The Codex Alimentarius is a collection of international food safety standards that have been adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (the “Codex”). The Codex is based in Rome and funded jointly by the FAO and the WHO.

In the early 1960s, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and the World Health Organization (WHO) recognized the importance of developing international standards for the purposes of protecting public health and minimizing disruption of international food trade. The Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Program was established, and the Codex Alimentarius Commission was designated to administer the program.

The advantages of having universally agreed food standards for the protection of consumers were recognized by international negotiators during the Uruguay Round. It is not surprising, therefore, that the SPS Agreement and TBT Agreement, within the separate areas of their legal coverage, both encourage the international harmonization of food standards. Importantly, the SPS Agreement cites Codex’s food safety standards, guidelines and recommendations for facilitating international trade and protecting public health.

Over the years, the Codex has developed over 200 standards covering processed, semi-processed or unprocessed foods intended for sale for the consumer or for intermediate processing; over 40 hygienic and technological codes of practice; evaluated over 1000 food additives and 54 veterinary drugs; set more than 3000 maximum levels for pesticide residues; and specified over 30 guidelines for contaminants.

ISO (INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION)

ISO originated from the union of two organisations – the ISO (International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations) and the UNSCC (United Nations Standard Coordinating Committee).

The consequences of unsafe food can be serious and ISO’s food safety management standards help organizations identify and control food safety hazards. As many of today’s food products repeatedly cross national boundaries, International Standards are needed to ensure the safety of the global food supply chain.

The World Trade Organization (WTO)

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations. At its heart are the WTO agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world’s trading nations and ratified in their parliaments. The goal is to ensure that trade flows as smoothly, predictably and freely as possible.

CONSUMER PROTECTION ACT, 1986

Consumer Protection Act, 1986 is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted in 1986 to protect the interests of consumers in India. It makes provision for the establishment of consumer councils and other authorities for the settlement of consumers’ disputes and for matters connected therewith also.

The Consumer Protection Act, 1986 was enacted to provide a simpler and quicker access to redress of consumer grievances. The Act seeks to promote and protects the interest of consumers against deficiencies and defects in goods or services. It also seeks to secure the rights of a consumer against unfair trade practices, which may be practised by manufacturers and traders.

The set-up of consumer forum is geared to provide relief to both parties and discourage long litigation. In a process called ‘informal adjudication’, forum officials mediate between the two parties and urge compromise.

Basic rights of consumers include

1.            Right to be protected against marketing of goods and services which are hazardous to life and property.

2.            Right to be informed about the quality, quantity, standard and price of goods or services so as to protect the consumer against unfair trade practices.

3.            Right to be assured, wherever possible, access to a variety of goods and services at competitive prices.

4.            Right to be heard and to be assured that consumers interests will receive due consideration at appropriate forums.

5.            Right to seek redressal against unfair trade practices.

6.            Right to consumer education.

Consumer redressal forum

Under the Consumer Protection Act, every district has at least one consumer redressal forum also called a consumer court. Here, consumers can get their grievances heard. Above the district, forums are the state commissions. At the top is the National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission in New Delhi.

A written complaint to the company is taken as proof that the company has been informed. The complaint must be backed by copies of bills, prescriptions and other relevant documents, and should set a deadline for the company to respond. Consumers can also complain through a consumer organisation.

Claims of less than Rs. 5 lakh should be filed with district forum, claims of Rs. 5-Rs. 20 lakh directly with the state commission, and claims of more than Rs. 20 lakh with the National Commission.

To file the complaint

·                     Complaint is to be filed within two years of buying the product or using the service.

·                     Complaint needs to be in writing. Letters should be sent by registered post, hand-delivered, by email or fax. Don’t forget to take an acknowledgement.

·                     The complaint should mention the name and address of the person who is complaining and against whom the complaint is being filed. Copies of relevant documents must be enclosed.

·                     The consumer must mention details of the problem and the demand on the company for redressal. This could be a replacement of the product, removal of the defect, refund of money, or compensation for expenses incurred and for physical/mental torture. Please ensure that the claims are reasonable.

·                     You should preserve all bills, receipts and proof of correspondence related to the case. Avoid using voice mail or telephone because such interactions are normally difficult to prove.

·                     The complaint can be in any Indian language, but it is better to use English.

·                     There is no compulsion to hire a lawyer. The main cost consists of correspondence and travelling to the consumer forum for the hearing

·                     Maintain a complete record of the emails and documents sent by you.

Appeal

Appeal is a legal instrumentality whereby a person not satisfied with the findings of a court has an option to go to a higher court to present his case and seek justice. In the context of consumer forums:

1.            An appeal can be made with the state commission against the order of the district forum within 30 days of the order which is extendable for further 15 days. (Section 15)

2.            An appeal can be made to the National Commission against the order of the state commission within 30 days of the order or within such time as the National Commission allows. (Section 19)

3.            An appeal can be made to the Supreme Court against the order of the National Commission within 30 days of the order or within such time as the Supreme Court allows. (Section 23)

Penalties

The consumer courts (district court, the state commission and National Commission) are given vast powers to enforce their orders. If a defaulter does not appear in court despite notices and reminders, the court may decide the matter in his absence. The forum can sentence the defaulter to a maximum of three years’ imprisonment and impose a fine of Rs. 10,000. Forums can issue warrants to produce defaulters in court. They can use the police and revenue departments to enforce orders.

The rights of consumers need to be protected since they avail services given by the service providers based on trust and faith and thus it’s a necessity to keep a check on the service providers for the sake of service recipient.